The No Child Left Behind Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The No Child Left Behind Act - Essay Example However, for some students, the noble idea of not leaving a child behind has not yet been taken seriously with the general public and a lot of educational systems which includes special education. Furthermore, the progressions of credentials, assessment, categorization, placement, and instruction have truly meant to put down their cultural and linguistic differences. With that, it is apparent that school systems overlook multiculturalism and diversity especially in educational intervention, where the minority students are placed, which means children are left behind (Obiakor 2000). Unfortunately, there are some political figures that believe the no child left behind program does not work because minority groups in school systems cover forty percent of the student body and there are lack resources and accommodations for them to learn on an even level with the other students. This creates a major problem with these children learning properly and effectively, which indicates that that number of the growing diversity is being ignored. In fiscal years 2002 through the current 2004, Congress authorized between $26.4 billion and $32 billion to be spent on the "No Child Left Behind" initiative. While Bush's budget request rose in each of those years, it still fell far short of the authorization. And in the past two fiscal years, the president's request of about $22 billion was less than what Congress had appropriated the year before. Both years, Congress provided more than Bush requested. Critics also say that the way the "No Child Left Behind" federal grading system works isn't fair in some cases because it requires yearly progress not just from a school but from every subgroup of students, including those with disabilities or ones who speak English as a second language (Bush stumps for 'No Child Left Behind). The growing number of infants and toddlers of minority groups is increasing every year. Below consists of some statistics that sheds light on the issues, which needs to addressed immediately by educators and families of minority older children, infants and toddlers (Diversity in Early Childhood Intervention Leadership Current Facts and Challenges). The U.S. Department of Education (2003a) found that 38.8% of public school students were minorities in 2000, up from 29.6% in 1986. In addition, the number of students who spoke a language other than English at home rose from 6.3 million in 1979 to 13.7 million in 1999 (U.S. Department of Education, 2003b). Minority teachers, on the other hand, accounted for only 13% of the faculty. The number of ethnically and linguistically diverse students is continuing to grow. By the year 2005, children and adolescents of color will make up as much as 40% of the U.S. youth population. Schools with high concentrations of black and Hispanic students uniformly have the most teachers with the least experience and the least qualifications for the subject they teach. Infants and toddlers ages birth to 2 who are served under IDEA, Part C, reflect the growing diversity of the U.S. The children represented are African-American (15%), Hispanic/Latino (18%), Asian/Pacific Islander (4%) and American Indian/ Alaskan (1%). Special education teachers who served primarily students ages 3-5 classify themselves as Asian (2%), Black (5.8%), White (90%) and "other" (2%). 6.4% consider themselves Hispanic and 93.6% do not. "Young people from the least well off demographic groups form a

Incarceration of African American Males Essay Example for Free

Incarceration of African American Males Essay Introduction The trend of African American males between the ages of 25 and 29 has seen a dramatic increase of incarceration. Attention has been focusing on areas of housing, education, and healthcare but the most prominent problem for African American males is the increase in the incarceration rate. African American males between the ages of 25 and 29 incarceration rate has been thought, by many, to be caused by economic factors such as under employment or unemployment, poor housing, lack of education, and lack of healthcare. Yet, others believe it is due to the imbalance of minorities within the criminal justice system, such as judges, lawyers, and lawmakers. This paper will explore two different outlooks; society has come up with so far, as to why African American Males between the ages of 25 and 29 are increasingly incarcerated. Finally, the information will give awareness to the problems that is faced by African American Males between the ages of 25 and 29. Prevalence – Problem 1 More than 40% of all American prisoners, men and women, are African American men, yet they make up just 13% of the U. S. male population (Roberts, 2004). This statistic does not include those African American men who are in local jails nor does it include those African American men under custodial supervision (Table 2). They enter the state and federal prison system, at the prime of their economic and reproductive lives and yet they exit prison behind both economically and socially. The high rate of incarceration among African Americans has been noted by the interconnection of poor economy, lack of affordable housing, mental illness, substance abuse, domestic violence, absence of a strong black male role model, lack of access to education, or some type of combination of these factors. Statistics don’t even give African American males a good chance to stay out of jail. They have a one in four chance of being incarcerated, while Hispanic American males have a one in six chance, and white males only have a one in twenty three chance of incarceration. The color of African Americans sets them apart and makes them targetable. Prevalence – Problem 2 There is evidence, in our American Justice System, of structural inequality as seen in the percentages of minorities to the percentage of majorities employed in high ranking positions, within the system. The percentage of United States judges by race are 79% Caucasian, 12% African American, and 2% Hispanics American (Federal Judicial Center, 2012), as for the thousands of lawyers in the United States it is approximate of 3% are African American (National Law Group, 2010-2011), and about 1 in 4 police officers are members of a racial or ethnic minority in 2007 (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2013). An investigation into racial profiling showed that African American and Hispanic American offenders, who often are young unemployed males, are more likely than their white counterparts (Spohn, C. , 2000). Their prison sentences are also typically longer or they receive differential benefits from guideline departures than do similarly situated white offenders (Spohn, C. , 2000). We must acknowledge the problems of racial disparity within the criminal justice system, communicate racial disparity within the criminal justice system with those we who are not informed of the problem, and stay committed to changing racial disparity within our justice system for change to begin. Causes In researching the high rate of incarceration in America it is more likely than not that the increase in African American Males being incarcerated is due to the War on Drugs (Table 1). It is public knowledge that drug crime ranks high among the effects of poverty. These poor neighborhoods not only endure crime they have poor schools, poor food, cramped living areas, and shortage of jobs if any jobs at all. Drugs and drug crime has become regularity in low income communities, arrests of Hispanics made up 55% of cocaine powder offences and 52% of marijuana offenses and 49% involving opiates: African Americans were suspected in 75% of crack cocaine cases; White males were suspected in 41% all methamphetamine cases (Motivans, M. , 2011). Decades of failed public and private remedies for chronic disparities and disadvantages in communities of color invite us to reexamine systems and institutions that provide and restrict opportunity in new ways (Lawrence, K. , 2011). The causes seem to be intertwined being poor equals, equals a poor education, equals lack of employment, and ultimately equals an increased rate of crime. Consequences The causes seem to be intertwined being poor, equals lack of education, which equals lack of employment, which equals increased rate of crime which equals impossibility to join criminal justice system. Also, many of these men are incarcerated while all the other non-incarcerated American young men are finishing school, starting careers, earning seniority at work, marrying and having children thus gaining capital. Even when released from prison, these men return back to their communities with a felony record that will pose extreme problems for them. The incarceration leads the released convict into a lower social class even if they were considered lower class Americans prior to their incarceration; they now are lower in social class standing in most instances. This leads to a poor African American community, perhaps as many as 50% of the male population will have been in prison. These incarcerated African American Males, who are in their prime of life, also are leaving half the families in this community facing such things as poverty, lack of affordable housing, mental illness, substance abuse, violence, absence of a strong black male role model, lack of access to education, or some type of combination of these factors. The community ultimately will become poverty stricken, struggling to survive, and ultimately vulnerable to the situation repeating. Solutions – How can this be changed? There are four key aspects to addressing racial disparity, in my opinion: 1. Acknowledge 2. Communication 3. Setback = Strength 4. Commitment Not only is the problem of racial disparity under recognized by society it is not being communicated effectively to make change. Majority groups needs to acknowledge racial disparity and minority groups need to communicate their knowledge regarding racial disparity. As each group majority and minority begins to become share their information with each other and work together for a common solution acknowledging there will be setbacks but with continued commitment systemic change will happen. Conclusion By refusing to tolerate disparate treatment of people of color or anyone within the criminal justice system we empower ourselves and our country. It is time that everyone including our legislators, law enforcement, prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges work collectively and courageously to eradicate this negative stigma. Despite, America being known for its equal rights we are living proof that in this era inequality is a factor that cannot be taken lightly. The statistics that are surrounding African American males is astounding. We need to empower African American males with the knowledge that they have a one in four chance of becoming incarcerated. It is also important to know that Hispanic males have a one in six chance, and white males have a one in twenty three chance of incarceration. All of these statistics need to be addressed to empower each and every one us. Throughout history we have not seen a change in majority groups (White, Male) and minority groups (Women, anyone that is not White) although we have seen numbers of minorities increasing at a fast pace. Today, however, the election of Barack Obama, not once but twice, may set the new ideal of what an American actually is. As we embrace different cultures and their ethnic backgrounds society will prosper. As society increases their knowledge, in regards to each person’s differences, they will acquire greater strength and prosperity. The only issue, that can occur, will be in the short term empowering others to embrace diversity. When we look beyond short-term, focus will shift to diverse empowerment through embracing the knowledge of our differences thus making us stronger as a society. TABLE 1: BLACK PROPORTION OF DRUG ARRESTS, EXCLUDING MARIJUANA POSSESSION YEAR BLACK % 1999 40. 1 2000 39. 3 2001 39. 1 2002 35. 8 2003 33. 8 2004 33. 1 2005 33. 2 Data calculated from drug arrest figures by race provided by the Uniform Crime Reports division of the FBI TABLE 2: FBI CRIME REPORT Arrests By Race, 2006 [11,249 agencies; 2006 estimated population 216,685,152] Total White Black American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific islander Total White Black American Indian or Alaskan Native Asian or Pacific Islander TOTAL 10,437,620. 7270214 2924724 130589 112093 100. 0 69. 7 28 1. 3 1. 1 Drug abuse violations 1376192 875101 483886 8198 9607 1000 63. 6 35. 1 0. 6 0. 7 DUI’S 1034651 914226 95260 13484 11681 100 88. 4 9. 2 1. 3 1. 1 Liquor laws 466323 398068 50035 12831 5389 100 85. 4 10. 7 2. 8 1. 2 Drunken-ness 408439 344155 54113 7884 2287 100 84. 3 13. 2 1. 9 0. 6 Dis-orderly conduct 5117264 325991 179733 7606 3934 100 63. 0 34. 7 1. 5 0. 8 (The FBI: Uniform Crime Report, 2010) References Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2013, http://bjs. ojp. usdoj. gov/index. cfm? ty=tptid=71 The FBI Uniform Crime Reports, 2010, Table 43, http://www. fbi. gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u. s/2010/crime-in-the-u. s. -2010/tables/table-43 Federal Judicial Center, 2012, Overview of the United States Court System, http://www. fjc. gov/public/pdf. nsf/lookup/FJC_Standard_PPT_English_June_2012. pdf/$file/FJC_Standard_PPT_English_June_2012. pdf Lawrence, K. , 2011, Race, Crime, and Punishment: Breaking the Connection in America, http://www. aspeninstitute. org/sites/default/files/content/docs/pubs/Race-Crime-Punishment. pdf Motivans, Mark, 2011, Washington, DC: US Dept. of Justice Bureau of Justice Statistics, http://bjs. ojp. usdoj. gov/content/pub/pdf/fjs09. pdf National Law Group 2010-2011, http://blacklawyers. net/ Roberts, D. , 2004, Measuring the Social and Moral Cost of Mass Incarceration, in African American Communities, http://www. law. fsu. edu/faculty/2003-2004workshops/roberts. pdf Spohn,C. ,2000, Thirty Years of Sentencing Reform: The Quest for a Racially Neutral Sentencing Process, http://www. justicestudies. com/pubs/livelink3-1. pdf.

Artificial Intelligence In Military Application Information Technology Essay

Artificial Intelligence In Military Application Information Technology Essay Since the dawn of civilizations, humans have endeavored to be in control of their environments and surroundings. This quest resulted in many discoveries and inventions, most notably among them are machines. Human used machines as an aid to make ones life comfortable, effective and efficient and aimed to develop machines capable of working like human beings, if possible. Computer is one of the most important machines which has not only raised hopes in this regard but has also contributed significantly in every sphere of human endeavor. Human approach to problem solving is one of its kinds. It is based on abstract thought, logic, reasoning and recognizing of pattern. Computers and humans are different. A computer is yet to understand all situations and simultaneously adapt to an evolving situations. The military systems including weapons will be smart; too fast, too small, too many, and will create a complex environment for humans to monitor, control and direct them. Information-based systems will lead to a data overload that will make it a challenge for humans to directly intervene in decision making. Weapons and other military systems already under development will function at increasingly higher levels of complexity and responsibility, without meaningful human intervention and control. In future military conflicts, norm of engagement will be to act rapidly. The military architectures of tomorrow will consist of a new array of sea, ground and space based sensors, unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAV), and missile defence technologies. These will take advantage of directed energy weapons. Military forces will be both faster and agile. Opponents will take advantage by operating faster than a defender can observe, orient, decide how to respond and act on that decision. The attacker will thus place himself inside the defenders Observe, Orient, Decide and Act (OODA) loop, destroying an adversarys ability to conduct an active defence  [1]  . To execute the OODA process faster than the enemy is at the core concept of future digital and information warfare. Automated systems, assisted by artificial intelligence in some form or the other, may be a way out for this problem. The advances gained in the field of artificial intelligence technology can be utilized by unmanned systems to be able to assess operational and tactical situations and decide an appropriate action. Information will drive success of command and control. These systems will collect data, have the ability to analyze data and provide recommendations to the commander. The difference between providing a recommendation and acting on a recommendation may be only a software twist. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the branch of computer science focusing on creating machines that can engage on behaviour that humans consider intelligent. AI aims to improve machine behaviour in tackling complex tasks. Smart machines have now become a reality and researchers are creating systems which can mimic human thought, understand speech, beat the best human chess player, and achieve many other advantages. With the introduction of web-enabled infrastructure rapid developments have been made in the application of Artificial Intelligence techniques in the recent past. AI is the key technology in many of todays applications in all field including military. AI methodologies are being applied to support decision making at all levels of military operations such as assessment of force readiness, reliability and capability, complex missions planning and integration of data from multiple sources  [2]  . Research in the field of AI is also addressing the challenges presented by supporting such decision making in rapidly changing environments. The use of such technology opens up endless possibilities in the military. This paper aims to trace the contours of AI, examine current efforts to utilise Artificial Intelligence and explore its potential applications in military. Genesis and Recent Past   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚   The first Electronics computer was developed in 1941; however, the field of AI research was formally founded at a conference at Dartmouth College in 1956 only. Early work in AI focused on using cognitive and biological models to simulate and explain human information processing skills. In the 1990s and early 21st century, AI achieved its greatest successes. AI has advanced rapidly in the past decade. This happened due to greater use of the scientific method in experimenting with and comparing approaches that systematises and automates intellectual tasks. Thus it is relevant to any sphere of intellectual activities of human. The success can be attributed to the incredible power of modern computers, a greater emphasis on solving specific sub-problems, the creation of new ties between AI and other fields working on similar problems. AI is seen and perceived by different people or groups of people differently. The definitions of artificial intelligence can be broadly put into two approaches: one centred around humans and other centred on rationality  [3]  . The human centred approach must be an empirical science involving hypothesis and experimental confirmation while a rationalist approach involves a combination of mathematics and engineering. There have been efforts to introduce new creative approaches and refine the best one. Recent progress in understanding the theoretical basis for intelligence has gone hand in hand with improvements in the capabilities of real systems. Various subfields of AI have become more integrated. AI has found some common ground with other disciplines. A better understanding of the problems and their complex properties, combined with increased mathematical sophistication has led to workable research agendas. Fields of AI In AI the problem of intelligence simulation is generally divided into a number of specific sub-problems. These consist of particular capabilities that researchers like an intelligent system to display. For difficult problems, most of the algorithms require large computational resources and the amount of memory or computer time required become very high. With rapid strides in computer technology, research and utilization, the field of AI witnessed new frontiers. Russell and Norvig explains, AI encompasses a large variety of subfields ranging from general purpose area such as learning and perception to such specific tasks as playing chess, proving mathematical theorems, writing poetry, and diagnosing diseases. AI systematises and automates intellectual tasks and is therefore potentially relevant to any sphere of human intellectual activity. In a sense, it is a truly universal field  [4]  The various fields and subfields that received more attention in order to solve larger problem s are: Learning The centrality of learning was discussed by Turing in 1950. From the beginning itself machine learning has been central to AI research. The ability to find a pattern in a stream of input is called unsupervised learning where as supervised learning includes classification and numerical regression both. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in. This is done after seeing a number of examples of things from several categories. Regression takes a set of numerical input and output examples and attempts to discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs. In case of reinforcement learning, the agent is rewarded or punished based on good or bad responses. Natural Language Processing It gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages spoken by human beings. Text mining and machine translation are example of some basic applications of natural language processing. Perception Perception provides agents with information about the world in which they exist. Perception is initiated by sensors. Machine perception is the ability to use input from various sensors such as cameras, microphones, sonar etc to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyse visual input. Facial recognition, object recognition and speech recognition are some of the selected sub-problems Social Intelligence In order to obtain social intelligence capability, Artificial intelligence has to establish able human interaction and also possess the emotions that people have during their everyday lives. Social skills and emotion play two important roles for an intelligent agent. First, it should be able to foresee the actions of others, by knowing their motives and state of emotions. This involves elements of game theory, decision theory, as well as the ability to model human emotions and also the perceptual skills to detect emotions. Also, it is expected that for good human-computer interaction, emotions need to be displayed by an intelligent machine also. It must appear polite and sensitive to the humans it interacts with. At best, it should have normal emotions and at least it should appear polite. Creativity Artificial Intelligence that deals with the development and exploration of systems that exhibit creativity. It includes systems capable of such things as scientific invention, visual artistry, music composition and story generation etc. A section of AI addresses creativity both theoretically from a psychological perspective and practically via specific implementations of systems that generate outputs that can be considered creative. Artificial Intuition and Artificial Imagination are the areas related with computational research. General Intelligence Many of the researchers hope that their work will finally be included into a machine with general intelligence, combining all the other skills and exceeding human abilities at most of them. Knowledge Representation knowledge representation is one of the important and most familiar concepts in AI. Most of the problems that machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are objects, properties, categories and relations between objects, situations, events, states and time, causes and effects, and many other less well researched domains. Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering are central to AI research Planning Planning are the subfields of AI devoted to finding action sequences that achieve the agents goals. Intelligent agents should be able to lay down goals and accomplish them. They need a way to imagine the future and be able to select choices that maximize the value of the available choices. They should have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it. Multi-agent planning uses the cooperation and competition of many agents to achieve a given goal. Tools Used to Solve Problems of AI In the course of years of research, AI has developed a large number of tools to solve the difficult problems in computer science. A few of the most common of these methods are mentioned: Search and Optimisation Search is the subfield of AI devoted to finding action sequences that achieve the agents goal. Several problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions. Reasoning can be reduced to simply perform a search operation. Planning algorithms search through trees of goals and sub-goals, attempting to find a path to a target goal. This process is called means-ends analysis. Robotics algorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects use local searches in configuration space. Several learning algorithms use search algorithms based on optimization. In case of most of the real world problems, simple exhaustive searches are rarely sufficient. Therefore, heuristics supply the program with a best guess for the path on which the solution lies on.   Also in case of many problems, it is possible to begin the search with some form of a guess and then incrementally refine the guess until no more refinements can be made. Logic Logic is the primary vehicle for representing knowledge. It is used for knowledge representation and problem solving. However, it can be applied to other problems also. AI uses several different forms of logic research. Propositional or sentential logic is the logic of statements which can be true or false. There is well developed technology for reasoning in proportional logic First-order logic also permits the use of quantifiers and predicates. It can express details about objects, their properties, and their relations with each other. Fuzzy logic is a version of first-order logic. It allows the truth of a statement to be represented as a value between 0 and 1, rather than simply True or False. Fuzzy systems have been widely used in modern industrial and consumer product control systems and can be used for uncertain reasoning. Several extensions of logic have been intended to handle many domains of knowledge. Other forms of logic designed to help with default reasoning and the qualification problem include default logics, non-monotonic logics and circumscription Probabilistic Methods For Uncertain Reasoning A large number of problems in AI such as learning, reasoning, planning, perception and robotics call for the agent to operate either with uncertain or incomplete information. A number of powerful tools using methods from probability theory and economics have devised by AI researchers to solve these problems. Bayesian networks are a very common tool that can be used for a large number of problems likes learning, reasoning, planning and perception etc. Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction and finding explanations for streams of data, helping perception systems to analyse processes that occur over time. Mathematical tools have been developed that analyse how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis, information value theory. Classifiers and Statistical Learning Methods Classifiers and Controllers are two types of AI applications. Classification forms a central part of many AI systems however, controllers do also classify conditions before inferring actions. Classifiers are functions that make use of pattern matching to determine a closest match. They can be tuned as per examples, making them very attractive for use in AI. These examples are known as patterns or observations. Each pattern belongs to a certain predefined class in case of supervised learning. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on earlier experience. A classifier can be trained in many ways. Neural networks A neuron is a cell in the brain whose principal function is the collection, processing, and dissemination of electrical signals. The brains image processing capacity is considered to emerge mainly from network of neurons. A neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, similar to the large network of neurons in the human brain. Neural networks are designed to distinguish patterns in data and forecast an output from a given set of data. Neural networks need to be trained on the data before it can predict or learn. In this way they learn from examples similar to the way a child learns. Computer learning skills that are developed for neural networks are used in a class of computer programs called expert systems. Expert systems also learn from experience and get better at their job, the longer they are doing it. Control Theory Control theory is the foundation of AI and deals with designing devices that act optimally on the basis of feedback from the environment. Initially, the mathematical tools of control theory were quite different from AI, but the fields are coming closer together. Control theory, has many important applications, especially in robotics. Languages AI researchers have developed several specialized languages for AI research, including Lisp and Prolog. In AI, the automation or programming of all aspects of human cognition is considered from its foundations in cognitive science through approaches to symbolic and sub-symbolic AI, natural language processing, computer vision, and evolutionary or adaptive systems. It is inherent to this very complex problem domain that in the initial phase of programming a speci ¬Ã‚ c AI problem, it can only be speci ¬Ã‚ ed poorly. Only through interactive and incremental re ¬Ã‚ nement does more precise speci ¬Ã‚ cation become possible. This is also due to the fact that typical AI problems tend to be very domain speci ¬Ã‚ c therefore, heuristic strategies have to be developed.. Applications of AI General The probable applications of Artificial Intelligence are plenty. Application of AI is possible in all fields, requiring intelligent analysis, precision and automation. They stretch from the military to the entertainment industry, to big establishments dealing with large amount of information such as banks, hospital and insurances. AI can also be used to predict customer behavior and detect the trends. There are many general fields where AI can be very usefully utilized for Autonomous planning and Scheduling, Autonomous Control, Medical Diagnosis, Logistics Planning, and Language Understanding, Problem Solving, Game Playing  [5]  . Some of the important applications are appended below: Pattern Recognition Pattern recognition is the area of research that studies the operation and design of systems that identify patterns in data. When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with pattern e.g face, fingerprint or handwriting recognition. Important application areas are image analysis, character recognition, speech analysis, man and machine diagnostics and person identification. Bio-Informatics Bioinformatics is the application of computer technology for the management of biological information. AI provides several powerful algorithms and techniques for solving important problems in bioinformatics. Approaches like Neural Networks, Hidden Markov Models, Bayesian Networks and Kernel Methods are ideal for areas with more data but very less theory. The goal in applying AI to bioinformatics is to extract useful information from the wealth of available data by building good probabilistic models. Data Mining An AI powered tool that can discover useful information within a database that can then be used to improve actions. Data mining  is the process of extracting patterns from  data. Data mining is seen as an increasingly important tool by modern business to transform data into business intelligence giving an informational advantage. It is currently used in a wide range of profiling practices such as marketing,  surveillance,  fraud  detection, and scientific discovery. Expert Systems An expert system is a computer program that represents the reason with knowledge of some specialist subject with a view to solve problems or give advice  [6]  . It is the knowledge-based applications of artificial intelligence that have enhanced productivity in almost all fields such as business, science, engineering, and the military. With advances in the last decade, todays expert systems clients can choose from dozens of commercial software packages with easy-to-use interfaces. Diagnosis and Trouble-shooting explain the development and testing of a condition-monitoring sub-module of an integrated plant maintenance management application based on AI techniques. It is mainly knowledge-based systems, having several modules, sub-modules and sections. Computer Vision It is essential for computer to perceive the objects. Vision includes the acquisition and processing of visual information both. AI enabled technologies have made possible many amazing achievements. Vehicles that are able to steer themselves safely along highways, and computers that can recognize and interpret speech or facial expressions. AI supported vision technology has made many applications possible. Some of them are like 3D modeling, image stabilization, image synthesis, surgical navigation, handwritten document recognition, and vision based computer interfaces. While explaining success of an autonomous system trial supported by computer vision Russel and Norvig mentioned: The ALVIN computer vision system was trained to steer a car to keep it following a lane.   It was tried in the Carnegie Melon University (CMU) NAVLAB computer controlled minivan and used to navigate across the United States for 2850 miles it was in control of steering the vehicle 98% of the time. A human took over the other 2% mostly at the exit ramps. NAVLAB has video cameras that transmit road images to ALVIN, which then computes the best direction to steer, based on experience from previous training runs.  [7]   Image Processing Perception appears to be an effortless activity for humans however, it requires significant amount of sophisticated computation. The team associated with image formation and processing is concerned with research issues related to the acquisition, manipulation, and synthesis and distribution of images. In AI, applications include video phone, video conferencing, teleconferencing, and multimedia databases. Progressively, this research has combined image or vision with audio or speech. For example in the video indexing project, the group is using both visual and audio cues to derive semantic labels for video shots. Robotics Robots are physical agents that perform tasks by manipulating the physical world. Robots are comprised of several systems working together as a whole. Robots are widely used in assembly plants, space stations, and hospitals and now in homes also. Other type of mobile robots includes unmanned land vehicle, unmanned aerial vehicles and autonomous underwater vehicle. Knowledge Representation and Reasoning The representation of knowledge and the reasoning processes that bring knowledge to life are the two concepts, central to the field of AI. The knowledge representation means encoding real world, commonsense etc in a format that is both readable and understandable by the computer. Logical Agents is the representation of knowledge and the reasoning processes that bring knowledge to life. Logic is the primary vehicle for representing the knowledge throughout and Semantic webs describe things in a way that computer applications understand. Gaming Game playing was one of the first tasks taken by AI. Games, unlike other problems, are interesting because they are too difficult to solve. Games like the real world require the ability to make some decisions even when calculating the optimal decision is not feasible. Games also penalize inefficiency severely. Game playing research has contributed in many ideas on how to make best possible use of time. AI techniques are used in computer and video games to produce the illusion of intelligence in the behaviour of non-player characters. The techniques used typically draw upon existing methods from fields that include control theory, robotics etc. IBMs Deep Blue became the first computer programme to defeat the world champion in a chess match when it performed better than Garry Kasparov in an exhibition match. Military Applications The military applications of Artificial Intelligence are spread over large areas of military functions. Some of the military functions where AI techniques are being used or have potential use are given below. Operations Command and Control Command and Control is considered as one of the most important functions of military operations. In a networked centered scenario of battlefield with host of sensors deployed at different stages and the amount of data flowing between various centres, the time available for decision making is at premium. The information overload sometimes can impair the decision making hence require intelligent filtering of information to take timely and appropriate decisions. AI is used in playing a decisive role in reducing the load on the human beings in the loop and at times taking autonomous decisions as and when warranted. Navigation The availability of Global Positioning Satellites (GPS), Inertial Navigation Systems (INS) and autopilot along with host of sensors and On-board computers has helped in overcoming certain human limitations and resulted in safe and efficient management of flying aircrafts. ISR Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance are the key elements of battlefield management. Over time the battlefield scenario has undergone dramatic change and so as the means of identification, surveillance and reconnaissance. Advancement in technology in many spheres has offered sensors with high sensitivity, small sizes and better visibility. AI has contributed significantly in this regard in terms of ground, aerial, space and underwater ISR capabilities.   Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) using AI offer tremendous potential as intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance platforms for early detection of security threats and for acquisition and maintenance of situational awareness in the crisis condition. Using their capabilities effectively requires addressing a range of practical and theoretical problems. Developments in the field of hardware and software technologies, as well as economies of scale, make UAVs feasible for increasingly diverse airborne observation mission s. Expert systems are promising technologies that manage information demands and provide required expertise. Thus they are well suited to many of the tasks associated with environmental impact assessment. While highlighting the contribution of artificial intelligence in battlefield surveillance using geographical information system, Maj Jagmohan Singh of Project Management organization, Battlefield surveillance system , Army HQ concludes: Transparency of the battlefield is a critical factor influencing the outcome of future battles. Battlefield transparency would provide a framework for `scientific and deliberate decision making. The dependence of commanders on paper maps and sand models for operational planning will have to be replaced by the latest GIS tools. These tools permit dynamic visualization of a 3D terrain model for seamless access, query and analysis across multiple types of military geographical data. Mapping and analysis is done using various GIS technologies incorporating satellites and aerial imagery, and photography of the target area. The future technologies would further enhance the visualization techniques and enable the commanders to take timely decisions to defeat the adversaries. However, emphasis needs to focus on refinement of some critical technologies such as Multi Sensor Data Fusion (MSDF), Artificial Intelligence and Interoperability issues.   [8]   Weapon System The weapon technology has seen constant change and has gained more lethality and effectiveness in its evolution. A host of modern weapons are in use or in process of development which can change the landscape of the battlefield. Missiles, Directed energy weapons, Standoff weapons, autonomous weapons etc are few examples of intelligent weapons and have even greater potential in future. Communications and Computers Communication is the core of all activities. In the age of modern communication, the geographical boundaries have come closer and visibility has improved to a great extent. The advent of satellite and availability of internet has revolutionized the communication. In future the success of battlefield will depend on maintenance of network connectivity and management of information from a large variety of sources. This will also made real time communication more important. The non availability of real time information can hamper the decision making ability of soldiers fighting the war. It may result in the failure of mission and even danger to personal survival. Wren, Ichalkaranje and Jain commented on the contribution and maturity of AI: Intelligent Decision Support Systems have the potential to transform human decision making by combining research in artificial intelligence, information technology, and systems engineering. The field of intelligent decision making is expanding rapidly partly due to advances in artificial intelligence and network-centric environments that can deliver the technology. Communication and coordination between dispersed systems can deliver just-in-time information, real-time processing, collaborative environments, and globally up-to-date information to a human decision maker. At the same time, artificial intelligence techniques have demonstrated that they have matured sufficiently to provide computational assistance to humans in practical applications.  [9]   Network centric environment facilitates leveraging Artificial Intelligence to allow soldiers to access and share information throughout the entire network. Network centric environment provides coordination, where each node in the network helps provide a flawless, decentralized organization of intelligent resources. Maintenance Repair and Overhaul The fighting capability of the forces depends upon the serviceability and availability of the range of equipment held in its inventory. Most of the modern days equipments used for military application have certain defined life span. Also the demand of battlefield has ensured that highly sophisticated equipments should be made available for combat. This demands a system with quick fault diagnostic capability, easy maintainability and highly trained human resources along with modern ground facilities. Presently the expert systems are in use to analyze the faulty Printed Circuit Boards (PCB) of Radars or aircraft avionics using Automatic Test Equipments (ATE). Built-in Test systems are encouragingly being used with modern development of weapons. The techniques such as expert system and robotics are fairly in use in military application however has the potential to be exploited at much greater scale to expedite automation. Logistics Logistics is the life line in case of military operations. The various models of operations research have been employed in effective management of the logistics operation. The system of simulation has helped in optimizing the operation and AI has a great potential in assisting in planning and keeping the supply chain effective and efficient. Russell and Norvig highlighted that: During the Persian Gulf crisis of 1991, US forces deployed a Dynamic Analysis and Replanning Tool (DART) to do automated logistics planning and scheduling for transportation. This involved up to 50000 vehicles, cargo and people at a time and had to account for starting point, destinations, routes, and conflict resolution among all parameters. The AI planning techniques allowed a plan to be generated in hours that would have taken weeks with older methods. The Defence Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) stated that this single application more than paid back its 30 year inv

The Forests Symbolisim in The Scarlet Letter Essay -- essays research

A Refuge from Prosecution: The Forest in The Scarlet Letter The Scarlet Letter is a tale of constant trial and punishment. For Hester Prynne, there is no escape from the shame and belittlement she has been forced to endure within puritan society. However, like the puritans who had escaped prosecution by migrating from England to the New World, characters in The Scarlet Letter can escape the prosecution of puritan society by visiting the forest. It is a symbolic realm that embodies freedom and privacy, and the only sanctuary for those who seek liberty to express their true nature, whether it be through acts of love, or heresy. The forest as a symbol of escape from puritan society is persistent throughout the novel through its use by the witches and the Black Man, Dimmesdale and Hester?s interactions there, and Pearl?s union with nature there. From its earliest significant mention in the novel, the forest is portrayed as a place of lawlessness and mystery, as demonstrated by its most frequent visitors, the witches, and the Black Man that inhabits it. Early in the book, after Hester and Pearl visit Governor Bellingham?s estate, they are accosted by Mistress Hibbins, who is referred to as a witch, and is in good company with the Black Man of the forest. Mistress Hibbins invites Hester to some sort of meeting that would take place that night in the forest, which one can only assume is of some Satanic or heretical nature. ?Wilt thou go with us tonight (120) she asks, but Hester refuses. The Black Man and his book are themselves symbols of heresy and dissent from puritan law. The Black Man never shows himself to anyone in the novel or enters the village, instead, he lurks in the forest?s cover until those who choose to deviate f... ... showing a less hostile nature. She adorns herself with flowers, and is in ?closest sympathy with the antique wood.? (214) Through this description of Pearl, the forest takes on a sympathetic nature, and is portrayed as an environment where one can find peace with one?s surroundings and be in an environment where they feel amicability instead of antagonism. Of all the symbols in The Scarlet Letter, the forest is one of the most important. By providing an escape from the overbearing nature of puritan life, the forest allows characters to be presented in a different backdrop, it can serve as a place of both light and darkness, but above all, liberty. For every character that visits it, the forest is freedom, protection, and peace. Without it, there would be no contrast with the village as well as puritan society, and Hawthorne?s message would not be as convincing.

My Yoga Experience

In the contemporary world, life can really be hectic and stressful. The influx of schedules for work, school and others have taken most of the time of people's daily routine. Leaving them with little time for themselves to unwind and relax. This is the point when people start to get saturated from their lives thus the feeling of lethargy and void. They tend to look for an escape to the world of routines and deadlines. But vacations or leaves should not be just once or twice a year, these activities should be embedded into people's everyday lives. I, for one, have experienced overworking myself to the point that I have neglected the state of my health. I was too busy that I have forgotten to eat regularly and to sleep on time. Basically, I was so engrossed with my work that I became unaware of the negative effects of my actions. As a result, I was exhausted all the time, I got sick more often and my body began to deteriorate externally and internally. When I realized that these consequences could really harm me, I started to modify my schedule. I gradually lessened my work load and allotted more time for wellness and relaxation. I found yoga as the best method for natural healing. Ever since I became involved in this kind of physical exercise, days of restlessness and fast-paced itineraries were long gone. Yoga have really changed the way I live my life. It is not only the toning of the physical body but of the mind and spirit as well. Yoga is holistic experience that strengthen all the aspects of being human. For centuries, yoga have been practiced as a form of relaxation and exercise that emanated in India. According to Sanskrit, an ancient Indian language, yoga means â€Å"union. † It is presumed that the term â€Å"union† describes the relationship between the â€Å"mind, body and spirit. † More so, yoga is also called â€Å"asana† which refers to the â€Å"practice of physical postures or poses. † It is part of â€Å"eight ‘limbs’ of yoga wherein the â€Å"the majority of which are more concerned with mental and spiritual well being than physical activity† (Pizer, 2007, â€Å"What is Yoga? †). Moreover, based on advaita vedanta, a yoga philosophy, the goal in life is to determine true origin or nature of oneself which is also typically called by many as â€Å"self realization or God realization† (Advaita Yoga Ashrama, 2008, â€Å"Four Margas or Paths of Yoga†). To fully appreciate the world of yoga, I also studied its history and fundamental principles. Yoga originated from the â€Å"Indus Valley civilization. † The term yogi is accredited to those who practice yoga. For the yogis, yoga techniques are actuated to attain amplify spirituality. Also, they â€Å"encourage the union with the finite jiva (transitory self) and with the infinite Brahman (eternal self) which is also used to refer to ‘God'. † Yogis believe in Pantheism which teaches that â€Å"God is everything† wherein God is an an impersonal, spiritual substance, coexisting with all of reality. Through this doctrine, human beings can be considered as a God but because of ignorance people cannot comprehend they are God. In order to resolve this dilemma, enlightenment or an experience of union with God is needed (Allaboutspirituality. org â€Å"History of Yoga†). Before I started to practice yoga, I was a little bit apprehensive. I thought from what I saw on the television and magazines that doing yoga would only entail stretching and meditating. Also, the testimonials who have tried yoga have affected my judgment about it. Most of them disclosed that yoga is a form of physical exercise that tones the body. I was skeptic that it would bring me relaxation and tranquility because my mind usually wanders whenever I am idle and physical activities are not my idea of leisure. I finally tried yoga when my friend insisted that my preconceived notions are incorrect. So to end our bickering about the subject, I decided to attend a class. After only one session, all my assumptions were falsified. It came to my surprise that yoga is nothing what I have imagined. In an instant, I fell in love with yoga and I clamored for more so I took it up regularly. The practice of yoga had really improved my body, health and even my outlook in life. What sets yoga apart from other natural healing methods is that it aims for perfection. Practitioners of yoga must try to naturally attain perfection to achieve enlightenment. However, in order to get there, one should eliminate being self-centered. The path to perfection must be free from hurdles that would make practitioners of yoga deviate from their original goal. So, intense discipline of the mind, body and spirit are the fundamental factors needed to make perfection materialized. At a cost of $12 to $16 per session, attending yoga classes is really cheap. But there is a more inexpensive way of doing yoga which is by taking bundle sessions that cost about $50 to $190 for 10 sessions. I chose the bundle sessions because achieving the effects of yoga do not happen overnight, it will take some time, effort and dedication before a practitioner can see and feel the results. During the beginner's phase of my yoga classes, my instructor taught us different positions and the seven â€Å"chakras† or energy centers. The first chakra is â€Å"Muladhara†which is located below the spine. This brings stability and solidity to yogis. The proper posture for this chakra is the â€Å"setu bandhasana† or â€Å"bridge† which revitalizes the thigh and abdominal muscles. The second chakra is called â€Å"Svadhisthana† which connotes sweetness and it is located at â€Å"the lower abdomen and womb area. † The â€Å"Bhujanasana or The Cobra† is the appropriate position for this chakra which starts with a lying position then the upper body is slowly drawn upwards. The third chakra is called â€Å"Manipura† which when translated refers to yellow lustrous gem. â€Å"Manipura† chakra can be found at the area of the solar plexus and the navel. This chakra can channel will and power if the correct posture is used. The â€Å"Dhanaurasana â€Å" or â€Å"The Bow† position concentrates on the belly. It massages the muscles for easy digestion. The fourth chakra is â€Å"Anahata† which is situated at the heart and its function is anything that concerns with love. â€Å"Ushtrasana† of â€Å"The Camel† is the best position to open this chakra. â€Å"Visuddha† is the fifth chakra which is positioned at the throat. This chakra can purify the body using its corresponding posture called â€Å"Matsyasana† or â€Å"The Fish† which is good for â€Å"opening and calling attention to the throat. The sixth chakra is called â€Å"Anja† which means â€Å"to know, to percieve, to command† while the last chakra is â€Å"Sahasrara† that means thousandfold. â€Å"Anja† is located at the head around the area of the third eye while â€Å"Sahasrara† is the crown o r the topmost part of the head. Both chakras can be opened using the seated yoga Mudra which will bring attention to the head of the body (About. com â€Å"Chakras and Yoga Postures). All of these postures can vary depending on the yogi. It must be balanced with proper body postures and breathing to feel the healing power of yoga. More so, it is important to note that there are several stages of yoga and practitioners must know their body limits to avoid straining the muscles and accidents as well. Yoga have helped me in many ways to improve my self. I joined yoga classes unaware of the many benefits that I could gain from it. My lifestyle is now free from stress and tension. Moreover, yoga have trained me to be more disciplined in keeping my body, mind and spirit healthy. Now, I can enjoy life at my own pace without any worries and insecurities and I can also appreciate more the beauty of nature. Works Cited â€Å"Chakras and Yoga Postures.† 2008. About.com. 22 July 2008 ;http://healing.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm? zi=1/XJ/Ya;sdn=healing;cdn=religion;tm=264;f=20;tt=14;bt= 0;bts=0;zu=http%3A//members.tripod.com/%7Ekira_lis/chakra1.html; â€Å"Four Margas or Paths of Yoga.† 2008. Yoga108.org. 22 July 2008 ;http://yoga108.org/pages/show/7-four-margas-four-paths-of-yoga;. â€Å"History of Yoga.† 2008. Allaboutspirituality.org. 22 July 2008 ;http://www.allaboutspirituality.org/history-of-yoga.htm;. Pizer, Ann. â€Å"What is Yoga?† 26 November 2007. About.com. 22 July 2008 ;http://yoga.about.com/od/beginningyoga/a/whatisyoga.htm;.

General Procedures for Elementary Classrooms

General Procedures for Elementary Classrooms The key to a well-managed organized classroom, is to create effective classroom procedures and routines. By implementing procedures, students will understand what is expected of them throughout the day. Once these are established, the number of behavior problems and classroom interruptions will be greatly reduced. Here is a list of general procedures and routines to teach in the classroom. Feel free to modify or adapt this list depending upon grade level and individual preference. Beginning the Day When entering the classroom, first put away your coat, book-bag, snack and lunch. Then turn your homework in the homework basket, place your attendance tag in the appropriate spot on the lunch count board and start you morning seat-work. Entering and Leaving the Room Enter and exit the classroom quietly. If you are coming in late or leaving early, do not disturb the other students. This procedure will be used for all situations throughout the school day. Lunch Count/Attendance Find your name and move your attendance tag to the correct column. If you brought lunch, place your tag under the bringing column. If you are buying lunch place your tag under the buying column. Using the Restroom (Younger students) You can get up and use the restroom freely as long as the teacher is not in the middle of teaching a lesson. (Older students) One student at a time my use the lavatory pass. They must return with the pass within three minutes or they will lose the privilege of going to the lavatory freely. Fire Drill When you hear the alarm, stop what you are doing, leave everything, and quietly walk directly to the door. The first person takes the fire drill packet while the second person holds the door open for the rest of the class. The last student closes the door and gets into line. Once outside, everyone is expected to stand quietly and wait for the announcement to come back into the building. Lining Up Wait until you or your row is called, then quietly stand up, push in your chair, and line up facing forward. Bring all the necessary items you may need with you. Ending the Day Clear off your desk, place papers to go home in your homework folder and wait to be called. Once you are called then gather your belongings, stack your chair, quietly sit on the carpet and wait to be dismissed. Additional Procedures: AnnouncementsClassroom jobsParticipating in group lessonsThrowing away trashGetting a tissuePledge of AllegianceClassroom visitorsSignals for attentionHelping other studentsWhen to use the pencil sharpenerWhen to use the drinking fountainHanding in homeworkCaring for classroom suppliesHandling classroom equipmentGetting ready for lunch or specialsChanging classesPassing out papersAsking questionsSnack timeParticipating in learning centersGoing to the nurse Additional Things to Consider Here are four additional things to consider when implementing your classroom procedures. Take time to practice It may take students several weeks to learn the various procedures that are expected of them. Take the time to practice over and over again until they understand. Once they understand what is expected, then you will have more time to teach. Make procedures simple For younger students, make them easy to follow. The more complicated they get, the longer it will take for the students to understand them. Make procedures visible Only post the most important procedures you want the students to follow. Leave the easy ones, like walking in the hallway and going to lunch from memory. Be Specific When teaching a procedure to the class, make sure you are specific and list your expectations exactly how you want the students to follow them.